Introduction

The tragic event at Grenfell Tower in London on June 14, 2017, underscored the catastrophic consequences of inadequate materials testing and fire safety measures (BBC News). Labelled as one of the worst disasters in UK history, the aggressive fire claimed 72 lives in the early hours of London at the 23-storey social housing block. One of the flat occupant’s, Behailu Kebede described being woken up by the sound of a smoke alarm, which he investigated inside the kitchen. Behailu was confronted by the sight of smoke near the fridge freezer, and promptly called the fire brigade, logging the call at 0054 hrs. Fire fighters arrived at the scene at 0059 hrs. However, despite attempts to put out the fire, it rapidly went out of control and was exacerbated due to the usage of combustible cladding - exterior panels designed to improve appearance and add thermal insulation embedded into the building. These materials are composed of flammable Aluminium composite panels acting as a source of a fuel, intensifying the fire. This was exacerbated by the ‘stay put,’ fire emergency plan, instructing residents to remain inside their room and await instruction. However this advice caused occupants to be trapped, and tragically many were unable to survive.

The Grenfell Fire Inquiry led to staunch criticism of the Government and construction industry’s negligence in using such materials (Rice-Oxley). Beyond Grenfell Tower, other incidents such as Melbourne’s Lacrosse Tower fire in 2014 and Dubai’s Address Downtown fire in 2015 have showcased the vulnerabilities of certain materials when exposed to fire (Dow), (Barakat). All these fires bring into the focus the criticality of materials selection as part of fire safety design, providing the means to practically test materials and determine their suitability for use in building construction.

Why Materials Fire Testing Matters –

Materials fire testing serves as the cornerstone of fire safety in construction. It involves evaluating the properties and performance of materials under simulated fire conditions to determine their ignition point, flame spread and heat release (Material Fire Testing). The primary objective is to ensure that building materials can withstand fire exposure for a specified period, thereby providing occupants with adequate time to evacuate and minimising structural damage.

Materials fire testing can be classified into two types, Fire Resistance Testing (FRT) and Reaction to Fire Testing (R2F). Fire Resistance Testing, as the name suggests, evaluates the ability of a material or assembly to withstand fire. It assesses how long a material can contain fire and retain its structural adequacy, material integrity and thermal insulation under fire conditions. Reaction to fire testing involves assessing how a material or product behaves when exposed to fire.

Fire testing can be further categorised into large-scale and small-scale testing. Small-scale fire testing involves assessing material properties and performance under controlled laboratory conditions using smaller samples, such as evaluating ignition points, flame spread, and heat release rates. This cost-effective method is suitable for preliminary evaluations and provides valuable data on material behaviour. An example of a small-scale test for cladding is AS 1530.1.

In contrast, large-scale fire testing replicates real-world scenarios to assess the performance of full-scale assemblies or systems under fully developed fire conditions. Although more expensive and complex, large-scale testing offers a comprehensive understanding of material and design behaviour in actual fire situations. An example of a large-scale test for cladding is AS 5113.

Case Study: Grenfell Tower

The Grenfell Tower fire was exacerbated using combustible cladding that failed to meet applicable fire safety standards. Post-incident investigations revealed that the Aluminium Composite Material (ACM) cladding, with a Polyethylene core, contributed significantly to the rapid fire spread (Bisby). The highly combustible Polyethylene polymer filler melts, drips, and flows at elevated temperature. Rigorous testing of this material could have identified its propensity for combustion and prevented its use in high-rise buildings.

The Grenfell Inquiry’s final report determined that the disaster resulted from “decades of failure” by the authorities through their negligence in dealing with combustible cladding (Casciani). A report by a retired High Court judge, Sir Martin Moore-Bick, says experts warned about cladding fires back in 1992 after a fire broke out in Knowsley Heights tower in Huyton, Merseyside. Seven years later, a fire at Garnock Court in Irvine, North Ayrshire prompted a parliamentary committee to cite similar concerns. However, these warnings were met with inaction as the cladding was already classified as being “safe” according to British standards.

The Grenfell Inquiry’s final report also highlights fire tests conducted on combustible cladding back in 2001. Unfortunately, the results were kept confidential and was again met with inaction. “We do not understand the failure to act in relation to a matter of such importance,” the Inquiry panel said. The Inquiry concluded that the origins of the catastrophe can be traced back many years ago.

Case Study: Lacrosse Tower

The Lacrosse Tower fire in Melbourne on November 25, 2014, further exemplifies the critical need for stringent materials testing. The fire originated from a cigarette left on a balcony, and it rapidly engulfed the building's exterior due to the combustible Aluminium Composite Panels (ACPs), similar to the material used in Grenfell Tower. The building's cladding failed to meet the necessary fire safety standards, allowing the fire to spread vertically and reached the roof within six minutes, though fortunately, no lives were lost (Brennan).

This incident prompted a widespread review of building materials and fire safety regulations in Australia. Investigations revealed that the cladding used, had not undergone adequate fire testing and did not comply with the Building Code of Australia (Australian Building Codes Board). Subsequent reforms emphasised the need for rigorous testing of all cladding materials to prevent similar incidents in the future (Moore, Tony & Oswald).

Case Study: Address Downtown

The Address Downtown fire in Dubai on December 31, 2015, was another alarming incident highlighting the vulnerabilities of certain building materials. The fire started on the 20th floor of the 63-story luxury hotel and residential tower and rapidly spread across the building's exterior. The flammable cladding material used on the facade played a critical role in the quick spread of the flames. Investigations revealed that the cladding material did not meet the necessary fire safety standards and was similar in composition to the materials used in the Lacrosse Tower fire.

The Address Downtown fire had significant ramifications, prompting a re-evaluation of building safety regulations in Dubai. The incident underscored the urgent need for stringent materials testing and stricter enforcement of fire safety codes. In the aftermath of the fire, Dubai authorities implemented several policy changes aimed at enhancing fire safety in high-rise buildings. These included mandatory testing and certification of cladding materials to ensure they met fire resistance standards before installation. Additionally, existing buildings with non-compliant cladding were required to retrofit their facades with compliant materials (DAMAC).

Materials Testing

The importance of rigorous materials testing in a building's passive fire protection system cannot be overstated. As evidenced by the catastrophic incidents at Grenfell Tower (UK), Lacrosse Tower (Australia), and Address Downtown (UAE), the failure of cladding materials to meet fire safety standards led to rapid fire spread, endangering life safety and resulting in significant property damage. These case studies underscore the critical need to ensure that all materials that are used for building components—such as cladding, fire doors, fire-separating walls and fire windows—are thoroughly tested under realistic fire conditions to verify their performance and compliance with safety regulations.

Fire doors and fire-separating walls and fire windows are critical components of a building's passive fire protection system. They are designed to fire compartmentalize the building to providing a safe egress route for occupants and preventing the spread of fire within a building. Real-world testing of these elements involves subjecting them to fire conditions to assess their structural adequacy, material integrity, and thermal insulation to allocate a Fire Resistance Level (FRL).

Fire Doors

In a series of tests conducted by the UK Building Research Establishment (BRE), various fire doors were evaluated (Building Research Establishment). A recent report by BRE for a local authority indicated that there is a high level of defects in fire doors, making it impossible to conclude that they would meet the stipulated -/30/30 (FRL). The fire doors were deemed ‘not fit for purpose’ due to deficient door components, sub-standard installation and irregular maintenance. These findings highlight the importance of fire doors meeting relevant standards as they form the bedrock of fire compartmentation in a building.

Fire Separating Walls

In tests conducted by the Underwriters Laboratory (UL), different types of fire separating walls were subjected to fire exposure to evaluate their performance. The results showed that fire walls constructed with gypsum board and steel studs provided excellent fire resistance, maintaining their structural integrity for up to two hours. Masonry fire walls, on the other hand, demonstrated even higher resistance, withstanding fire exposure for up to four hours (Stuart).

Cladding

In Australia, extensive tests were conducted on various cladding materials to evaluate their reaction to fire and safety compliance. These tests were crucial in determining the suitability of materials for use in high-rise buildings, particularly in the wake of the Lacrosse Tower fire. Key findings from these tests revealed significant variations in performance among different cladding types.

Rigorous materials testing is essential for ensuring the safety and resilience of buildings by verifying performance and compliance with safety regulations. Tests revealed that certain cladding materials contained highly combustible components. Cladding materials such as Aluminium Composite Panels (ACPs) with a Polyethylene core were found to be highly combustible, posing severe fire risks (Audit Office of New South Wales). Conversely, materials like mineral wool and non-combustible cladding panels demonstrated superior fire resistance, maintaining their structural integrity under intense fire conditions. These findings prompted a strategy to retain only compliant cladding while replacing non-compliant sections. This involves a fire safety upgrade strategy, including full-scale façade testing to AS 5113 standards, to ensure retained cladding poses no undue fire risks. Interim measures, such as establishing no-smoking zones and maintaining fire safety systems, will mitigate risks until permanent solutions are implemented. This comprehensive approach aims to reduce fire-related disasters and protect building occupants.

Implementing Robust Testing Protocols

To prevent future incidents, it is imperative to implement robust materials testing protocols. This involves:

• Establishing standardised testing procedures that simulate real-world fire scenarios to assess material performance.
• Requiring third-party certification of materials to ensure compliance with fire safety standards.
• Conducting regular inspections and audits of buildings to identify and address potential fire hazards.
• Investing in research and development to innovate and improve fire-resistant materials.

Conclusion

The importance of materials testing in determining fire behaviour cannot be emphasised enough. The lessons learned from high-profile failures like Grenfell Tower underscore the need for rigorous testing, strict regulatory standards, and proactive measures to ensure the safety of building occupants. By prioritising materials testing and adhering to best practices, we can mitigate the risks of fire-related disasters and protect lives.

Ultimately, the goal is to create a built environment where materials are thoroughly vetted for fire performance, ensuring that buildings meet applicable fire safety objectives. As we move forward, continued vigilance, research, and innovation in materials testing will be crucial in achieving this objective. The application of small and large-scale fire testing will better inform fire safety design and prevent similar fire incidents in the future.

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